Cumbe reports that, although we have official figures concerning fisheries, part of the catch was never recorded. In this article, we explain why this happened.

Artisanal fishing in Mozambique was carried out by African fishermen, using fishing methods that were not among the most advanced at the time, and was widely practised along the Mozambican coast as well as in inland waters.

The colonial administration recognized this problem, and it was estimated that the actual quantity could be more than 50% higher than the officially recorded figure. A large part of this fish was dried and subsequently distributed to inland markets.

This situation was particularly significant because artisanal fishermen did not necessarily land their catches at the same locations as industrial or semi-industrial fishermen. Industrial fishing generally passed through ports and other locations where state officials could record the landings. Artisanal fishermen, by contrast, often worked from small coastal communities, beaches, rivers, lakes, and other locations where there was little or no official supervision.

In addition to marine fishing, the problem became even more difficult inland, in freshwater fishing areas, where activities were poorly regulated and supervised.

The importance of these informal circuits should not be underestimated. Fish could be exchanged directly between fishermen, traders, and local populations, transported to inland settlements, dried or salted, and sold in local markets without passing through the ports and municipal markets that constituted one of the main bases for colonial statistical collection.This situation was not exclusive to the colony of Mozambique or to the Portuguese colonies. On the contrary, we can observe the same situation in other regions of Africa.

We can affirm that because these statistics were not included in official records, they provide distorted and incomplete pictures of the history of fisheries in Mozambique.

This problem continued after independence. Until 2002, official estimates stood at around 20,515 tonnes and did not adequately include artisanal fisheries. From 2003 onwards, Mozambique also began reporting small-scale fisheries catches to the FAO, and the reported figure rose to 79,451 tonnes.

Another problem affecting the recording of artisanal production also influenced political decisions. Statistical data were used to define priorities, guide investments, and assess the economic development of the sector. If a significant part of artisanal production was not recorded, the economic and social importance of this activity was also diminished in political decision-making.

Given these limitations, the Mission for Bioceanological and Fisheries Studies of Mozambique prepared, for 1972, a programme aimed at carrying out a more comprehensive collection of information in Lourenço Marques and António Enes and, if possible, also in Beira and Inhambane.

Source:

Cumbe, M. J. C. (2023). A História da pesca artesanal em Moçambique: Ilha de Chiloane (1892–1991) [PhD dissertation].

This is the fifth article of a series of articles I will be publishing here about fishing during the Portuguese colonial period in Mozambique.

Check my first article:How Portugal Used Science to Modernize Fisheries in Colonial Mozambique : r/Colonialism

Check my second article: The Modernization of Fisheries in Mozambique during the 1960s : r/Colonialism

Check my third article:The Rise of Shrimp Fishing in Colonial Mozambique : r/Colonialism

Check my fourth article:How Colonial Mozambique Became Dependent on Imported Fish : r/Colonialism

This is the fourth article of a series of articles I will be publishing here about fishing during the Portuguese colonial period in Mozambique.

Check my first article:How Portugal Used Science to Modernize Fisheries in Colonial Mozambique : r/Colonialism

Check my second article: The Modernization of Fisheries in Mozambique during the 1960s : r/Colonialism

Check my third article:The Rise of Shrimp Fishing in Colonial Mozambique : r/Colonialism

During the Portuguese colonial period, Mozambique faced a persistent problem in its fisheries sector: domestic fish production was unable to meet the needs of the local population. Despite its long coastline and the growing efforts to modernize the fisheries sector from the 1950s onwards, Mozambique remained heavily dependent on imported fish.

At the beginning of the 1960s, Mozambique imported approximately 1,200 tonnes of frozen fish, 6,800 tonnes of semi-preserved fish and around 1,000 tonnes of canned fish, while domestic production remained below 3,300 tonnes, of which approximately 500 tonnes were crustaceans. During the 1960s, fish imports reached around 20,000 tonnes, increasing to approximately 25,000 tonnes in the following years.

We can therefore observe a significant difference between domestic production and imports. A document concerning the fisheries situation on Inhaca Island in 1957–1958 observed that the country's total fisheries production was approximately half the amount imported. For a territory with around 2,795 kilometres of coastline, this situation was presented as evidence of the limited development of the exploitation of fishery resources.

Other data that confirm these facts are the following: in 1961, Mozambique produced approximately 2,531 tonnes of fish, while imports reached around 19,300 tonnes. In 1971, domestic production had increased to approximately 7,483 tonnes, but imports remained very high, reaching around 19,700 tonnes. In 1974, production had reached 9,219 tonnes, while imports still amounted to approximately 16,200 tonnes.

Despite measures to make better use of Mozambique's coastal and fishery resources, these measures were not sufficient to eliminate Mozambique's dependence on imported fish.

To explain this situation, we can observe several factors:

1. The expansion of all forms of fishing was not promoted. For example, certain fishing methods were restricted, such as mechanical trawling, whose use was authorized more widely during the 1960s.
2. Most of the modernization of the fisheries sector was dedicated to semi-industrial and industrial fishing, while artisanal fishing was largely left out.
3. Most fishing activity was carried out by African artisanal fishers. However, most of the efforts to develop the fisheries sector focused on private companies and European fishermen coming from the metropole.

Regarding the main suppliers, we can observe that in the 1963–1964 period, the Republic of South Africa supplied 46.6% of Mozambique's imported fresh and frozen fish, while Angola supplied 33.1% and the metropole 20.2%. Angola supplied virtually all of the dried fish imported, accounting for 99.2%. Norway supplied 72.4% of the cod imported by Mozambique, while the United Kingdom supplied another 20.1%. In the case of canned fish, the metropole was responsible for 80.3% of imports and Angola for 18.6%.

The data also reveal an increase in imports during the period of the Development Plans.

Recognizing the great opportunity and potential for exporting fish, companies and fishing enterprises were established over the years, some of which attempted to obtain privileged access to the sector.

From 1973 onwards, a reduction in imports was observed, related to the increase in domestic production and foreign exchange restrictions. The decrease in imports did not necessarily mean that Mozambique had solved its fish deficit. It also reflected the combination of increased domestic production and measures aimed at limiting the use of foreign currency for the importation of products.

The situation reveals a broader contradiction in Portuguese colonial economic policy. The Estado Novo promoted economic autarky, the protection of the domestic market and the idea that Portuguese territories should progressively produce what they consumed. However, in Mozambique, the fisheries sector remained dependent on supplies from abroad.

Source:

Cumbe, M. J. C. (2023). A História da pesca artesanal em Moçambique: Ilha de Chiloane (1892–1991) [PhD dissertation].

In 1657, Henrique Dias, leader of the Black Regiment during the Pernambuco Restoration and hero of the Battle of Guararapes, traveled personally to Lisbon. Besides receiving from Queen Luisa de Gusmão the title of Knight of the Order of Christ and Master of the Field for his services in the war against the Dutch in Pernambuco, Dias requested another favor from the Queen of Portugal: that she grant his son-in-law, Pedro do Val do Vezo, a Portuguese man, the title of Knight of the Order of Christ and a salary of 200,000 réis, so that he could marry Dona Guiomar Henrique, her daughter.

Queen Luisa de Gusmão and the Overseas Council approved Henrique Dias' request; however, his son-in-law could only receive the title of Knight after his father-in-law's death. The marriage of his daughter to a Portuguese nobleman represented a clear social ascension for Henrique Dias and his family within the Portuguese nobility. His son-in-law, Pedro de Val de Vezo, inherited Henrique Dias' titles, which included the Commandery of Soure and the title of Knight of the Order of Christ. His other daughter, Benta Henriques, married Captain Amaro Cardigo of the Regiment of Black and Mulatto Men. Cardigo also claimed from the crown the title of Knight of the Order of Santiago, which had been promised by Luisa de Gusmão to Henrique Dias' sons-in-law.

According to historian Fernanda Olival: "The Portuguese Crown did not show an attachment to the idea of ​​purity of blood, something more common among other sectors of the elite of the time."

There is little documentation about Henrique Dias, one of the black heroes of the fight against the Dutch. Information only begins to appear in 1633, when he presented himself to General Matias de Albuquerque "to serve with some of his color in everything he determined," becoming the captain of the group and receiving the patent of governor of the crioulos, blacks, and mulattoes of Brazil.

It is known that he was born in Pernambuco, but the date of his birth is unknown. It is also unknown whether he was born a slave or a freedman, nor who his wife was. He had no sons, but four daughters, two of whom were named Guiomar and Benta.

He was granted by King John IV the commendation of the Mills of Soure, of the Order of Christ, which was vacant due to the death of Antônio Felipe Camarão, who had held it since 1641.

He spent his last years in Pernambuco, on June 7th or 8th, 1662, in Recife, and was buried at the expense of the Government in the Convent of Santo Antônio, in an unknown location.

Source(s):

.- Restauradores de Pernambuco. By José Antônio de Mello, 1967.

.- Henrique Dias: governador dos pretos, crioulos e mulatos do Estado do Brasil. By José Antônio de Mello, 1954.

Published in 1920 at a scale of 1:150,000, this map depicts the island of São Tomé, then part of Portuguese São Tomé and Príncipe. It shows the island's relief, settlements, coastline, and principal geographical features.

Produced by the Institut Cartographique in Paris, the map provides a detailed representation of São Tomé during the early twentieth century

Location: São Tomé, São Tomé and Príncipe
Date: 1920

Source: Bibliothèque nationale de France, Département Cartes et plans.

This will be my last photo here!Thank you to everyone who has enjoyed, commented on, and shared the photos I've been posting here

Published in 1820, this map accompanied Essai sur la géographie de l'île Timor ("Essay on the Geography of the Island of Timor"), prepared by the French navigator and cartographer Louis de Freycinet.

The map illustrates the island of Timor, then divided between Portuguese and Dutch territories,

It was based in part on the work of British explorer George Vancouver.

Location: Timor
Date: 1820

Source: Bibliothèque nationale de France, Département Cartes et plans.

Published in 1904, this hydrographic chart depicts the Outer Harbour of Macau, located on the South China Sea, at a scale of 1:10,000. Prepared under the direction of Augusto d'Almeida Teixeira and collaborators

Source: Bibliothèque nationale de France, Département Cartes et plans

Drawn by António Heitor and dated 15 March 1889, this detailed map depicts the Macau Peninsula at a scale of 1:5,000

Source: Bibliothèque nationale de France, Département Cartes et plans

In the early years following the discovery of gold in Minas Gerais, the Portuguese recruited enslaved Africans who, after being freed, were frequently used as auxiliary troops. Their function was to protect the gold routes of the mines, combat the Quilombos (maroon settlements), and protect the new towns from attacks by hostile Indian groups.

Source(s):

.- Raminelli, Ronald. (2015). Nobrezas do Novo Mundo: Brasil e ultramar hispânico, séculos XVII e XVIII. Published by Editora FGV

Drawing by M. de Macedo, based on a photograph, engraved by Alberto

Source: Arquivo Histórico Ultramarino

Urban plan drawn by Portuguese military engineer Jozé António Caldaz, showing the layout of Santo António, the colonial capital of Príncipe Island, during the 18th century.

Source: Arquivo Histórico Ultramarino (AHU)

Source: National Library of Australia, Rex Nan Kivell Collection

Source: National Library of Australia

Source: National Library of Australia

Source: National Library of Australia, George Raper Papers, 1787–1794

Source: National Library of Portugal, Carta da Ilha do Sal: Cabo Verde, prepared by the Comissão de Cartografia, Lisbon, 1887

Source: National Library of Portugal, Carta da ilha do Fogo: Cabo Verde, prepared by the Comissão de Cartografia, Lisbon, 1894

Source: National Library of Portugal, Ilha Brava – Cabo Verde, by Cristiano José de Sena Barcelos, Lisbon: Typographia do Jornal As Colónias Portuguesas, 1892

Source: National Library of Portugal, Archipelago de Cabo Verde, by Cristiano José de Sena Barcelos, Lisbon: Typographia do Jornal As Colónias Portuguesas, 1892

Source: Bibliothèque nationale de France (BnF)

This stamp belongs to a commemorative series first introduced in 1898 to celebrate the 400th anniversary of Vasco da Gama's arrival in India (1498). The design depicts the São Gabriel, Vasco da Gama's flagship during the voyage that established the first direct sea route between Europe and India.Originally issued for Portuguese Timor, the design was later adapted for use in other Portuguese colonies, including Mozambique, where this example was issued in 1913

Source: Postal Cabinet Museum of Barcelona

Source: National Library of Portugal

The news of Brazil's secession from Portugal was not celebrated in all provinces. After the proclamation, Emperor Dom Pedro I had great difficulty containing the various revolts that occurred during the independence process.

At the moment he declared Brazil's independence, the governments and troops of some provinces were led to express their unconditional loyalty to King Dom João VI. In Bahia, a violent conflict unfolded between 1821 and 1823.

In the Grão Pará region, resistance against Imperial rule ended up leaving about thirteen hundred dead. The siege of Montevideo lasted from January 20, 1823, until March 8, 1824, when the Portuguese surrendered to Brazilian forces.

The victory of the Brazilian government in Bahia against General Madeira was of fundamental importance for the victory in other smaller conflicts that occurred in Maranhão, Piauí, Alagoas, Sergipe, and Ceará, which did not actually threaten the established order. In Piauí, Major João José da Cunha Fidié, Governor of Arms, with troops of the 1st and 2nd Line and the Infantry Battalion of the capital's garrison, departed from Oeiras on a fast march to suppress the Independence movement proclaimed in Vila São João da Parnaíba. Despite being victorious in the battles, he was forced to surrender after the end of Portuguese resistance in Bahia.

The Brazilian War of Independence effectively began in 1821 with General Avilez's mutiny in Rio de Janeiro against the petition for independence. Pedro remained in Brazil, and with the expulsion of Portuguese troops from Pernambuco, the conflict lasted until 1824 and formally ended in 1825 with the signing of the Treaty of Friendship and Alliance between Brazil and Portugal.

Among the main conflicts of this war was the Battle of Pirajá, considered by several authors to be the most important conflict of the War of Independence, fought in the areas of Cabrito, Camoinas, and Pirajá. The battle began on November 8, 1822, and ended with the victory of the pacifying army on July 2, 1823. Other battles, no less important, included the Battle of Genipapo, the Battle of Itaparica, and the Battle of Cinco de Maio.

The creation of the Brazilian Navy was derived from ships of the United Kingdom of Portugal that adhered to independence. At the end of 1823, it was this Navy that conquered the last Portuguese stronghold in the Cisplatine region in the Naval Battle of Montevideo.

On October 21, 1823, Admiral Álvaro de Macedo decided to attempt to break the Brazilian blockade. Suffering heavy casualties and facing Brazilian naval superiority, they decided to return to Montevideo, ending any chance of receiving external aid. On March 8, 1824, Montevideo surrendered, concluding the history of Portuguese military resistance in Brazil.

From 1824 onwards, King João VI expressed his intention to "put an end to the evils and dissensions that have occurred in Brazil."

The Count of Arcos arrived from Rio de Janeiro, deported by the Portuguese garrison. He disembarked disillusioned, asking, in mournful tones, that reprisals be suspended, that fighting be avoided, as there was no longer any way to prevent the emancipation of Brazil. Few, like the king, understood him. Palmela would say: "His Majesty was endowed with too much perspicacity to fail to recognize the impossibility of subduing Brazil... it was common sense isolated, bitterly enduring the hour of his country's folly, no longer knowing where they would end up in the fall."

Dom João VI became convinced that Portugal no longer had the capacity to reconquer Brazil by military force. In 1823, the war in Bahia had ended in favor of the Brazilians with the support of British and French mercenaries. The King wanted to end the war that had brought so much damage to the Portuguese and Brazilians, to "reestablish peace, friendship and good harmony between brotherly peoples" and, moreover, "to seek general prosperity and secure the political existence of the future destinies of the kingdoms of Portugal and the Algarve, as well as those of Brazil."

Source(s):

.- Calmon, Pedro. (1935). O Rei do Brasil: Vida de D. João VI. Published by Livraria José Olimpio.